Neo-Impressionism

Neo-Impressionism (1886-1906)

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OVERVIEW	Neo-Impressionism is the term coined by French art critic Félix Fénéon in 1886 to describe the Post-Impressionist work of Georges Seurat, Paul Signac, and their followers. This movement is characterized by the Divisionist technique, often mistakenly referred to as pointillism— a term that Signac himself rejected. Divisionism sought to establish a scientific foundation for Impressionist explorations of light and color through the optical mixture of hues. Instead of blending colors on the palette, artists applied tiny, separate dabs of primary colors on the canvas, allowing them to mix optically in the viewer's eye. This method maintains the vibrancy of colors, leaning toward a brighter, more luminous effect, as optically mixed colors tend to move toward white. The basis of this technique can be traced to the color theories of Michel-Eugène Chevreul, particularly his influential work "De la loi du contraste simultané des couleurs" (On the Law of the Simultaneous Contrast of Colors), published in Paris in 1839. Chevreul's theories profoundly influenced French painters of the time, especially the Impressionists and Post-Impressionists, including the Neo-Impressionists. Seurat's monumental painting “A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte” marked the seminal moment for this movement, when it debuted at the Société des Artistes Indépendants exhibition in Paris in 1886. This exhibition became a vital platform for these artists to showcase their works. In the same year, Seurat and Signac participated in the 8th and final Impressionist exhibition, later exhibiting with Les XX and La Libre Esthétique in Brussels. In 1892, a collective of Neo-Impressionist painters came together to exhibit their works in Paris at the Salons of the Hôtel Brébant, located at 32, boulevard Poissonnière. The following year, they showcased their art at 20, rue Laffitte. Neo-Impressionism as an organized art movement lasted approximately five years (1886–1891); however, its influence extended beyond Seurat's death in 1891, leaving a significant impact on later art movements. The techniques and ideas pioneered by the Neo-Impressionists contributed to the evolution of modern art, shaping the trajectory for artists in the 20th century and beyond.





HISTORY	The doctrine of Neo-Impressionism, largely conceived by Georges Seurat, aimed to apply scientific rationalization to the depiction of light through pure color, building upon the visual discoveries of the Impressionists. Seurat was influenced by various scientific investigations into color by notable figures, including the French chemist Michel-Eugène Chevreul, whose principles of simultaneous contrast were outlined in 1823, as well as the American physicist Edward Rood and the German scientist Hermann von Helmholtz. While these studies provided a foundation for Seurat's method, he expanded his inquiries to encompass the nature of light, color, and composition, thus incorporating all three essential components of painting. His approach was informed by the scientific principles formulated by Charles Henry, which guided his exploration of artistic expression. Seurat's process was systematic and evolved over time. He initially focused on "tonal contrasts" through charcoal drawings between 1883 and 1885, followed by "color contrasts" in works such as “A Summer Sunday at Grande-Jatte” (1884-1886), and ultimately, "line contrasts" in paintings like “The Rag” (1890) and “Circus” (1891). This methodological progression reflects Seurat’s dedication to understanding and manipulating the visual elements of art. Paul Signac succinctly encapsulated the essence of Neo-Impressionism, stating: "According to Seurat, painting is essentially a ‘breaking down.’ By breaking down, one obtains the maximum effect from luminosity, coloration, and harmony." He elaborated on this idea with several principles: 1. Optical Mixture of Pure Pigments: Utilizing only the prismatic colors and their gradations to achieve maximum luminosity. 2. Separation of Elements: Distinguishing between local color and the quality of light, as well as their interactions. 3. Balancing of Elements: Proportioning these elements according to laws of contrast, gradation, and irradiation. 4. Appropriate Brush Stroke Size: Selecting brush strokes that correspond proportionately to the size of the artwork. Seurat himself articulated his artistic vision in a theorem stating that "Art is harmony; harmony is the analogy of opposite and similar tones, colors, and lines." He defined tone as a matter of light and dark, color as complementary pairings (such as red and green, orange and blue, yellow and violet), and line in terms of directional qualities. The interplay of these various harmonies, Seurat believed, could result in emotional expressions that are serene, joyful, or melancholic. This technique, founded on the optical mixing of tones and colors, exemplified his commitment to synthesizing scientific inquiry with artistic expression, making Seurat a pivotal figure in the development of modern art.





CHRONOLOGY	1880 Durand-Ruel resumes buying paintings from Sisley andPissarro. Exhibitions: April 5th Impressionists group; May outwards Salon; April LaVie moderne offices, Manet; June LaVie moderne offices, Monet. 1881 Durand-Ruel resumes buying paintings from Renoir and Monet. Exhibitions: April 6th Impressionists group; May outwards Salon (new organised, under the control of the artists); LaVie moderne offices, Sisley; June LaVie moderne offices, Redon. 1882 Exhibitions: march 7th Impressionists group; May outwards Salon, May LaVie moderne offices, Redon. 1883 April Death of Manet. Exhibitions: Durand-Ruel, series of one-man shows: Boudin (Feb.), Monet (March), Renoir (April), C.Pissarro(May); May outwards Salon, Sept. outwards Exposition Nationale. 1884 Exhibitions: Jan. Ecole des Beaux-Arts, Manet (retrospective); 4-5 Feb. Manet studio sale; May outwards Salon; May-July Salon des Artistes Independants; Dec. Societe des Artistes Independants, 1st exh. 1885 Exhibitions: May outwards Salon; May-June G. Petit, 4th Exposition Internationale. 1886 March, VanGogharrives in Paris.Gauguinvisits Brittany for first time. Death of Monticelli. First Neo-Impressionists paintings shown at 8th and last Impressionist exhibition. Exhibitions: May outwards Salon; May-June 8th impressionists group, June-July 5th Exposition Internationale; Aug.-Sept. Independants. 1887 Gauguinlives in Martinique. Exhibitions: Feb.-March Le Tambourin café, Japanese prints, organised be Vincent vanGogh. March-May Independants; May outwards Salon; May-June 6th Exposition Internationale; spring (?) Le Tambourin café, Dec.-Jan. 1888 Revue independante. 1888 VanGoghleaves Paris for Arles.Gauguinjoined be Bernard at Pont-Aven in Brittany. Oct.,Gauguinjoins VanGoghin Arles. 1888-9, by Serusier, Denis, Bonnard, Ranson, joined 1889 by Vuillard and Roussel. Exhibitions: Jan. Boussod&Valadon (Theo van Gogh); Durand-Ruel, exh. Inc. Degas; March-May Independants; April Boussod&Valadon (Theo van Gogh); Sept.-Oct. Revue independante offices Dubois-Pillet. 1889 Exhibitions: May outwards Salon; May outwards Exposition Universelle; June-July G.Petit, Monet-Rodin (retrospective), Sept.-Oct. Independants; 1890 Death of Vincent vanGogh, Exhibitions: March-May Independants; May outwards Salon des Artistes Francais; May outwards 1st exh. of the Societe Nationale des Beaux-Arts (founded as alternative to the Salon des Artistes Francais, with Meissonier as President, Puvis de Chavannes as Vice-President; often known as the Salon du Champ de Mars). 1891 Deaths of Theo vanGoghandSeurat.Gauguinleaves for Tahiti. Exhibitions: March-April Independants; May outwards Salon des Artistes Francais; May outwards Societe Nationale; Dec. Le Barc de Boutteville, 1st Exposition des Peintres Impressionnistes et Symbolistes. 1892 Exhibitions: Feb. Durand-Ruel, C.Pissarro, Monet; March-April Independants; May Le Barc de Boutteville, 2nd Exposition des Peintres Impressionnistes et Symbolistes; May outwards Salon des Artistes Francais; May outwards Societe Nationale; Nov. Le Barc de Boutteville, 3rd Exposition des Peintres Impressionnistes et Symbolistes; 1893 Death of Pere Tanguy. Vollard opens gallery in rue LaffitteGauguinis back from Tahiti. Exhibitions: March-April Independants; May outwards Salon des Artistes Francais; May outwards Societe Nationale; May (?)Le Barc de Boutteville, 4th Exposition des Peintres Impressionnistes et Symbolistes; Nov. Durand-Ruel,Gauguin,Cassatt, Dec. Le Barc de Boutteville, 5th Exposition des Peintres Impressionnistes et Symbolistes. 1894 Exhibitions: Jan. –Feb. Durand-Ruel, Guillaumin; March Durand-Ruel,Pissarro; March. Le Barc de Boutteville, 6th Exposition des Peintres Impressionnistes et Symbolistes; March-April Durand-Ruel, Redon, April-May Independants; April outwards Societe Nationale; May outwards Salon des Artistes Francais; May Durand-Ruel,Toulouse-Lautrec, Manet, Caillebotte (retrospective), July Le Barc de Boutteville,7th Exposition des Peintres Impressionnistes et Symbolistes; Nov. Le Barc de Boutteville, 8th Exposition des Peintres Impressionnistes et Symbolistes. 1895 Exhibitions: April-May Independants; April-May Le Barc de Boutteville, 9th Exposition des Peintres Impressionnistes et Symbolistes; April outwards Societe Nationale; May outwards Salon des Artistes Francais; May Durand-Ruel, Monet; Sept. Le Barc de Boutteville, 10th Exposition des Peintres Impressionnistes et Symbolistes; Dec.-Jan. 1896 Bing. Salon de l’Art Nouveau. 1896 Exhibitions: Jan. Durand-Ruel, Bonnard, Guillaumin, Morisot (retrospective); c. March. Le Barc de Boutteville, 11th Exposition des Peintres Impressionnistes et Symbolistes; April-May Independants; April-May Durand-Ruel, C.Pissarro, Renoir; April outwards Societe Nationale; May outwards Salon des Artistes Francais; Summer Le Barc de Boutteville, 12th Exposition des Peintres Impressionnistes et Symbolistes; Sept. Durand-Ruel, Puvis de Chavannes; Nov. Le Barc de Boutteville, 13th Exposition des Peintres Impressionnistes et Symbolistes. 1897 Exhibitions: April-May Independants; April outwards Salon des Artistes Francais; April outwards Societe Nationale; June-July Le Barc de Boutteville, 14th Exposition des Peintres Impressionnistes et Symbolistes; Dec. Le Barc de Boutteville, 15th Exposition des Peintres Impressionnistes et Symbolistes. 1898 Exhibitions: Feb.-March Durand-Ruel, Zandomeneghi; April Durand-Ruel, Guillaumin; April-June Independants; May outwards Salon des Artistes Francais; May outwards Societe Nationale; May Durand-Ruel, Moret; June Durand-Ruel, C.Pissarro. 1899 Exhibitions: April Durand-Ruel, C.Pissarro, Renoir, Sisley; May outwards Salon des Artistes Francais; May outwards Societe Nationale; May-June Durand-Ruel , Jongkind (retrospective); June-July Durand-Ruel, Puvis de Chavannes; Oct.-Nov. Durand-Ruel, Luce; Oct.-Nov. Independants. 1900 Picasso first visits Paris. Exhibitions: April Durand-Ruel , Redon; April outwards Salon des Artistes Francais; April-Oct. Exposition Universelle; Nov.-Dec. Durand-Ruel, Monet; Dec. . Independants. 1901 Death ofToulouse-Lautrec. Exhibitions: Jan. Feb. Durand-Ruel, C.Pissarro; March Societe Nouvelle; April Durand-Ruel, Valtat; April-May Independants; April-June Societe Nationale; May outwards Salon des Artistes Francais; May Durand-Ruel, Moret. 1902 Exhibitions: Match-May Independants; April-June Societe Nationale; May outwards Salon des Artistes Francais; May Durand-Ruel,Toulouse-Lautrec. June Durand-Ruel, Renoir, Roussel. 1903 Death ofGauguinin Marquesas Island and of CamillePissarro. Exhibitions: March Durand-Ruel, Redon; Match-May Independants; April-June Societe Nationale; May outwards Salon des Artistes Francais; Oct.-Dec. Salon d’Automne (1st exh.), Nov. Durand-Ruel, Zandomeneghi. 1904 Bernard visits Cezanne at Aix. Exhibitions: Feb-March Durand-Ruel, Moret, Feb.-March Independants; April Durand-Ruel, C.Pissarro; April-June Societe Nationale; May outwards Salon des Artistes Francais; Oct.-Nov. Salon d’Automne. 1905 Exhibitions: March-April Independants; April outwards Societe Nationale; May outwards Salon des Artistes Francais; Oct.-Nov. Salon d’Automne. 1906 Denis and Roussel visit Cezanne at Aix. Death of Cezanne and Carriere. Exhibitions: Feb.-March Durand-Ruel, Redon, Manet, Monet; March-April Independants; April outwards Societe Nationale; May outwards Salon des Artistes Francais; Oct.-Nov. Salon d’Automne . 1907 Exhibitions: March-April Independants; April Durand-Ruel,, Moret; April-June Societe Nationale; May outwards Salon des Artistes Francais; Oct.-Nov. Salon d’Automne. 1908 Exhibitions: March-May Independants; April-June Societe Nationale; Oct.-Nov. Salon d’Automne.





EXHIBITIONS	1883 Oct., Les XXfounded in Brussels by O. Maus and 20 Belgian artists. 1884 Brussels, Feb.-March 1st Les XX, inc.: (members) Ensor, Finch, Knopff, Rysselberghe; (invitees): Chase, Gervex, Heymans, J.Israela, Maris, Mauve. 1885 Brussels, Feb.-March 2nd Les XX, inc.: (members) Ensor, Finch, Knopff, Rysselberghe, Toorop, Vogels; (invitees): Cazin, Fantin-Latour, Mellery, Mesdag, Raffaëlli, Uhde. 1886 Brussels, Feb.-March 3rd Les XX, inc.: (members) Ensor, Finch, Knopff, Rysselberghe, Vogels; (invitees) Besnard, Breither, Degas (but refused to send), Monet, Monticelli, Redon, Renoir, Whistler, Zandomeneghi. 1887 March-May, Idependants, inc.: Angrand, Cross, Dubois-Pillet, Luce, Maurin, L. Pissarro, Redon, Henry Rousseau,Seurat,Signac. Brussels, Feb.-March 4th Les XX, inc.: (members) Ensor, Finch, Knopff, Rysselberghe, Toorop, Vogels;(invitees) Cazin, C.Pissarro, Raffaëlli, Rodin,Seurat, Sickert. 1888 March-May, Idependants, inc.: Angrand, Anquetin, Cross, Dubois-Pillet, Van Gogh, Luce, Maurin, L. Pissarro, Rousseau, Seurat,Signac. Brussels, Feb.-March 5th Les XX, inc.: (members) Ensor, Finch, Knopff, Rysselberghe, Toorop, Vogels;(invitees) : Anquetin, Blanche, Burne-jones (but refused to send), Degas (but refused to send), Dubois-Pillet, Forain, Guillaumin, Helleu, Mellery,Signac, Whistler. 1889 May onwards Societe Nationale, inc.: Aman-Jean, Beraud, Besnard,Carriere, Cazin, Dagnan-Bouveret, Fantin-Latour, Guillou, La Touche, Maignan, Martin, Maurin, Puvis de Chavannes, Raffaëlli, Roll, Tissot. Sept.-Oct. Idependants, inc.: Anquetin, Dubois-Pillet, Filiger, Van Gogh, Hayet, Luce, O'Conor, L. Pissarro, Rousseau,Seurat,Signac,Toulouse-Lautrec. Brussels, Feb.-March 6th Les XX, inc.: (members) Ensor, Finch, Knopff, Lemmen, Rodin, Rysselberghe, Toorop, Van de Velde; (invitees) : Besnard, Cross,Gauguin, Klinger, Luce, Monet, C.Pissarro,Signac, Steer, W.Stott. 1890 March-April, Idependants, inc.: Angrand, Anquetin, Boch Anna, Cross, Dubois-Pillet, Filiger, Finch, Van Gogh, Guillaumin, Luce, O'Conor, L. Pissarro, Rousseau, Rysselberghe,Seurat,Signac,Toulouse-Lautrec, Van de Velde. Brussels, Feb.-March 7th Les XX, inc.: (members) Ensor, Finch, Knopff, Rodin, Rysselberghe, Toorop, Van de Velde, Vogels; (invitees) : Cezanne, Dubois-Pillet, Van Gogh, Hayet, Mellery, L. Pissarro, Redon, Renoir, Segantini, Signac, Sisley,Toulouse-Lautrec. 1891 May onwards Societe Nationale, inc.: Beraud, Besnard, Blanche, Boldini, Carriere, Cazin, Claus, Cottet, Cross, Dagnan-Bouveret, Harrison, Hodler, La Touche, Liebermann, Puvis de Chavannes, Raffaëlli, Roll, Sargent, Whistler. Dec. Le Barc de Boutteville, 1st. Exposition des Peintres Impressionistes et Symbolistes, inc.: Anquetin, Bernard, Bonnard, Cross, Denis, Filiger,Gauguin, Van Gogh, Luce, Manet, Ranson, Roussel, Serusier,Signac,Toulouse-Lautrec, Vuillard. Brussels, Feb.-March 8th Les XX, inc.: (members) Ensor, Finch, Knopff, Rodin, Rysselberghe, Toorop, Van de Velde; (invitees) :Angrand, Chéret, Grane, Filiger,Gauguin, Van Gogh, Guillaumin, C.Pissarro,Seurat, Steer, Verster. 1892 March-April, Idependants, inc.: Angrand, Anquetin, Bernard, Bonnard, Boch Anna, Cross, Denis, Luce, Moret, O'Conor, L. Pissarro, Ranson, Rousseau, Rysselberghe,Seurat(retrospective),Signac, Toorop,Toulouse-Lautrec. May onwards Societe Nationale, inc.: Aman-Jean, Beraud, Besnard, Blanche, Boldini, Carriere, Cazin, Claus, Conder, Cottet, Cross, Dagnan-Bouveret, Guthrie, Harrison, Helleu, Hodler, La Touche, Lhermitte, Liebermann, Puvis de Chavannes, Raffaëlli, Whistler. May, Le Barc de Boutteville, 2nd. Exposition des Peintres Impressionistes et Symbolistes, inc.: Bernard, Bonnard, Cross, Denis, Luce, C.Pissarro, Serusier,Signac,Toulouse-Lautrec. Nov. Le Barc de Boutteville, 3nd. Exposition des Peintres Impressionistes et Symbolistes, inc.: Cross, Denis,Gauguin, C.Pissarro, Roussel, Serusier,Toulouse-Lautrec. Brussels, Feb.-March 9th Les XX, inc.:(members) Ensor, Finch, Knopff, Rodin, Rysselberghe, Signac, Toorop, Van de Velde, Vogels; (invitees) : Besnard,Cassatt, Denis, Horne, Image, Luce, Mellery, L.Pissarro,Seurat,Toulouse-Lautrec. 1893 March-April, Idependants, inc.: Amiet, Angrand, Anquetin, Bonnard, Cross, Denis, Luce, Moret, O'Conor, L. Pissarro, Ranson, Rousseau, Rysselberghe,Signac, Steinlen,Toulouse-Lautrec, Vallotton, Valtat. May onwards Societe Nationale, inc.: Aman-Jean, Blanche, Carriere, Claus, Conder, Cottet, Cross, Dagnan-Bouveret, Guthrie, Harrison, Helleu, Hodler, La Touche, Lavery, Liebermann, Puvis de Chavannes, Raffaëlli, Roll, Rothenstein, Simon, Tissot. May (?) Le Barc de Boutteville, 4th. Exposition des Peintres Impressionistes et Symbolistes, inc.: Angrand, Anquetin, Bonnard, Cottet, Denis, Filiger, Guillaumin, C.Pissarro, Roussel, Serusier,Signac, Toorop,Toulouse-Lautrec, Vallotton, Vuillard. Dec. Le Barc de Boutteville, 5th. Exposition des Peintres Impressionistes et Symbolistes, inc.: Angrand, Anquetin, Bonnard, Chéret, Conder, Cottet, Denis,Gauguin, Guillaumin, Lacombe, Luce, Moret, Ranson, Roussel, Serusier,Toulouse-Lautrec, Vuillard. Brussels, Feb.-March 10th Les XX, inc.: (members) Ensor, Finch, Knopff, Rodin, Rysselberghe,Signac, Toorop, Van de Velde; (invitees) : Bernard, Besnard, Cross, Madox Brown, Steer, Thorn Prikker,Toulouse-Lautrec. 1894 March Le Barc de Boutteville, 6th. Exposition des Peintres Impressionistes et Symbolistes, inc.: Anquetin, Bonnard, Conder, Cottet, Denis, Filiger,Gauguin, Guillaumin, Hayet, Lacombe, O'Conor, Ranson, Seguin, Serusier, Vuillard. April-May, Idependants, inc.: Amiet, Angrand, Cross, Denis, Luce, Moret, L. Pissarro, Rousseau, Signac,Toulouse-Lautrec, Valtat. May onwards Societe Nationale, inc.: Aman-Jean, Beraud, Besnard, Blanche, Carriere, Cazin, Claus, Conder, Cottet, Dagnan-Bouveret, Dauchez, Guthrie, Harrison, Helleu, Hodler, La Touche, Lavery, Liebermann, Puvis de Chavannes,Roll, Sargent, Simon, Tissot, Whistler. July Le Barc de Boutteville, 7th. Exposition des Peintres Impressionistes et Symbolistes, inc.: Angrand, Anquetin, Bonnard, Chéret, Conder, Denis, Guillaumin, Hayet, Moret, O'Conor,Toulouse-Lautrec. Nov. Le Barc de Boutteville, 8th. Exposition des Peintres Impressionistes et Symbolistes, inc.: Angrand, Anquetin, Bonnard, Chéret, Cottet, Denis, Filiger, Forbes-Robertson, Guillaumin, Hayet, Lacombe, Maurin, Moret, O'Conor, Seguin, Serusier,Toulouse-Lautrec. 1895 April-May, Idependants, inc.: Angrand, Cross, Forbes-Robertson, Lacombe, Luce, Moret, Rousseau, Rysselberghe, Serusier,Signac,Toulouse-Lautrec. April-May, Le Barc de Boutteville, 9th. Exposition des Peintres Impressionistes et Symbolistes, inc.: Anquetin, Denis, Forbes-Robertson, Hayet, Moret, Ranson, Serusier. April onwards Societe Nationale, inc.: Aman-Jean, Besnard, Blanche, Carriere, Cazin, Claus, Cottet, Dauchez, Denis, Evenepoel, Guthrie, Harrison, Helleu, Hodler, La Touche, Lavery, Liebermann, Puvis de Chavannes,Roll, Simon, W. Stott. Sept. Le Barc de Boutteville, 10th. Exposition des Peintres Impressionistes et Symbolistes, inc.: Angrand, Anquetin, Forbes-Robertson, Hayet, Maillol, O'Conor, Seguin. 1896 March, Le Barc de Boutteville, 11th. Exposition des Peintres Impressionistes et Symbolistes, inc.: Denis, Lacombe, Maillol, Serusier. April-May, Idependants, inc.: Cross, Luce, Munch, Rousseau,Signac, Valtat. April onwards Societe Nationale, inc.: Aman-Jean, Beraud, Blanche, Boldini, Cazin, Claus, Cottet, Dagnan-Bouveret, Dauchez, Denis, Evenepoel, Guthrie, Harrison, La Touche, Lavery, Le Sidaner, Liebermann, Matisse, Puvis de Chavannes, Raffaëlli, Roll, Sargent, Simon, W. Stott. Summer, Le Barc de Boutteville, 12th. Exposition des Peintres Impressionistes et Symbolistes, inc.: Denis, Guillaumin, Roussel. Nov. Le Barc de Boutteville, 13th. Exposition des Peintres Impressionistes et Symbolistes, inc.: Roussel. 1897 April-May, Idependants, inc.: Cross, Luce, Munch, Rousseau,Signac,Toulouse-Lautrec, Valtat. April onwards Societe Nationale, inc.: Aman-Jean, Besnard, Blanche, Boldini, Carriere, Cazin, Claus, Cottet, Dagnan-Bouveret, Denis, Evenepoel, Guthrie, Harrison, Helleu, Hodler, La Touche, Lavery, Le Sidaner, Matisse, Raffaëlli, Roll, Simon, W. Stott, Whistler. June-July, Le Barc de Boutteville, 14th. Exposition des Peintres Impressionistes et Symbolistes. Dec. Le Barc de Boutteville, 15th. Exposition des Peintres Impressionistes et Symbolistes,inc.:Toulouse-Lautrec. 1898 April-June, Idependants, inc.: Cross, Luce, Rousseau,Signac. May onwards Societe Nationale, inc.: Aman-Jean, Anquetin, Besnard, Blanche, Carriere, Cazin, Claus, Conder, Cottet, Dagnan-Bouveret, Dauchez, Denis, Evenepoel, La Touche, Le Sidaner, Levy-Dhurmer, Puvis de Chavannes, Raffaëlli, Sargent, Simon. 1899 May onwards Societe Nationale, inc.: Beraud, Besnard, Blanche, Carriere, Cazin, Claus, Cottet, Dagnan-Bouveret, Dauchez, Denis, Evenepoel, Guthrie, La Touche, Le Sidaner, Matisse, Puvis de Chavannes, Raffaëlli, Roll, Simon, W. Stott. Oct.-Nov. Idependants, inc.: Cezanne, Cross, Luce,Signac. 1900 April-Oct. Exposition Universelle. Exposition centennale de i'art francais, 1800-1889,inc.: Bastien-Lepage, Beraud, Besnard, Boudin, Carriere, Cazin, Cezanne, Degas, Fantin-Latour,Gauguin, Guillaumin, Maignan, Manet, Maurin, Monet, Monticelli, Moreau, Morisot, C.Pissarro, Puvis de Chavannes, Raffaëlli, Renoir, Roll,Seurat, Sisley, Vallotton, Exposition decennale des Beaux-Arts, 1889-1900, inc.: Adler, Aman-Jean, Beraud, Besnard, Blanche, Carriere, Cazin, chabes, Cheret, Cottet, Dagnan-Bouveret, Dauchez, Guillou, La Touche, Le Sidaner, Levy-Dhurmer, Maignan, Martin, Raffaëlli, Roll, Simon.German sectioninc.: Klackreuth, Liebermann, Slevogt, Von Stuck.Austrian sectioninc.: Klimt, Kupka.Belgian sectioninc.: Claus, Ensor, Evenepoel, Khnopff, Vogels.Dutch sectioninc.:Toorop.American sectioninc.: Harrison, Sargent, Whistler. British sectioninc.: Clausen, Stanhope, La Thangue, Lavery, Melville, Osborne, Rothenstein,E. Stott.Italian sectioninc.: Boldini, Morbelli, Pellizza, Segantini.Swiss sectioninc.: Amiet, Hodler. Dec. Idependants, inc.: Luce, Puy, Schuffenecker,Signac. 1901 April-May, Idependants,inc.: Angrand, Boch Anna, Bonnard, Cezanne, Cross, Denis, Ensor, Lacombe, Luce, Matisse, Ranson, Rousseau, Roussel, Rysselberghe, Schuffenecker, Serusier, Sigmac, Vallotton, Valtat, Vuillard. April-June Societe Nationale,inc.: Aman-Jean, Anquetin, Beraud, Bernard, Blanche, Carriere, Cazin, Claus, Cottet, Dagnan-Bouveret, Dauchez, Denis, La Touche, Lavery, Le Sidaner, Raffaëlli, Simon 1902 March-May, Idependants, inc.: Bernard, Bonnard, Cezanne, Cross, Denis, Luce, Marquet, Matisse, Rousseau, Roussel, Rysselberghe,Signac,Toulouse-Lautrec(retrospective), Vallotton, Valtat, Vuillard. April-June Societe Nationale, inc.: Aman-Jean, Anquetin, Bernard, Besnard, Blanche, Carriere, Claus, Cottet, Dagnan-Bouveret, Dauchez, Harrison, Hodler, La Touche, Lavery, Le Sidaner, Raffaëlli, Roll, Sargent, Sickert, Simon, Whistler. 1903 March-May, Idependants, inc.: Angrand, Bonnard, Camoin, Cross, Denis, Dufy, Forain, Friesz, Luce, Marquet, Matisse, Munch, O'Conor, Ranson, Rousseau, Roussel, Rysselberghe, Schuffenecker, Sickert,Signac, Vallotton, Vuillard. April-June, Societe Nationale, inc.: Aman-Jean, Anquetin, Beraud, Bernard, Besnard, Blanche, Boldini, Bonnard, Claus, Cottet, Dagnan-Bouveret, Dauchez, Denis, Harrison, La Touche, Le Sidaner, Maillol, Raffaëlli, Roll, Sargent, Sickert, Simon, Vallotton. Oct.-Dec. Salon d'Automne (1st exh.), inc.: Adler, Aman-Jean, Besnard, Blanche, Bonnard, Carriere,Gauguin, Guillaumin, Harrison, Marquet, Matisse, Moret, O'Conor, Rouault, Von Stuck, Vallotton, Vuillard. 1904 Feb.-March, Idependants, inc.: Bonnard, Camoin, Cross, Delaunay, Denis, Van Dongen, Dufy, Friesz, Luce, Marquet, Matisse, Munch, O'Conor, Ranson, Rousseau, Roussel, Rysselberghe, Schuffenecker, Serusier,Signac, Vallotton, Valtat, Vuillard. April-June, Societe Nationale, inc.: Aman-Jean, Bakst, Beraud, Bernard, Besnard, Blanche, Boldini, Carriere, Claus, Conder, Cottet, Dagnan-Bouveret, Dauchez, Denis, Harrison, La Touche, Lavery, Le Sidaner, Raffaëlli, Roll, Rouault, Sargent, Simon, Whistler. Oct.-Nov. Salon d'Automne,inc.: Adler, Bonnard, Camoin, Carriere, Cezanne, Delaunay, Denis, Guillaumin, Kandinsky, Lavery, Liebermann, Maillol, Marquet, Matisse, Moret, O'Conor, Puvis de Chavannes, Redon, Renoir, Rouault, Roussel,Toulouse-Lautrec, Vallotton, Valtat, Van Dongen, Vuillard, Zandomeneghi. 1905 March-April, Idependants, inc.: Angrand, Bernard, Bonnard, Camoin, Cross, Delaunay, Denis, Derain, Van Dongen, Dufy, Friesz, Van Gogh, Herrmann, Kollwitz, Lacombe, Luce, Marquet, Matisse, Munch, O'Conor, Rouault, Rousseau, Roussel, Rysselberghe, Serusier,Seurat, Sickert,Signac, Vallotton, Valtat, Vlaminck, Vuillard. April, Societe Nationale, inc.: Aman-Jean, Anquetin, Beraud, Besnard, Boldini, Carriere, Claus, Cottet, Dagnan-Bouveret, Dauchez, Denis, Guthrie, Harrison, Henry, La Touche, Lavery, Le Sidaner, Raffaëlli, Roll, Sargent, Simon. Oct.-Nov. Salon d'Automne, inc.: Bonnard, Camoin, Carriere, Cezanne, Derain, Van Dongen, Duchamp-Villon, Friesz, Guillaumin, Ingres, Jawlensky, Kandinsky, Lavery, Maillol, Manet, Marquet, Matisse, Moret, O'Conor, Picabia, l.Pissarro, Raffaëlli, Redon, Renoir, Rouault, Rousseau, Roussel, Sickert, Vallotton, Valtat, Vlaminck, Vuillard. 1906 March-April, Idependants, inc.: Angrand, Bernard, Bonnard, Braque, Camoin, Cross, Delaunay, Denis, Derain, Van Dongen, Dufy, Friesz, Herrmann, Lacombe, Leger, Luce, Marquet, Matisse, Munch, O'Conor, Ranson, Rouault, Rousseau, Roussel, Rysselberghe, Schuffenecker, Serusier, Vallotton, Valtat, Vlaminck, Vuillard. April onwards, Societe Nationale, inc.: Aman-Jean, Beraud,Bernard, Besnard, Blanche, Boldini, Carriere, Claus, Cottet, Dagnan-Bouveret, Dauchez, Denis, Harrison, La Touche, Lavery, Le Sidaner, Roll, Simon. Oct.-Nov. Salon d'Automne, inc.: Bonnard, Brancusi, Camoin, Carriere, Cezanne, Delaunay, Derain, Van Dongen, Dufy, Friesz,Gauguin, Guillaumin, Kandinsky, Kupka, Lavery, Marquet, Matisse, Moret, O'Conor, Redon, Renoir, Rossi, Rouault, Rousseau, Roussel, Sickert, Vallotton, Valtat, Vlaminck, Vuillard; plus exh. of Russian art, organized by Diaghilev. 1907 March-April, Idependants, inc.: Amiet, Angrand, Braque, Camoin, Cross, Delaunay, Derain, Dufy, Gilman, Gore, Herrmann, Kandinsky, Luce, Matisse, O'Conor, Ranson, Rousseau, Roussel, Schuffenecker, Serusier,Signac, Vallotton, Vuillard. April-June, Societe Nationale, inc.: Aman-Jean, Anquetin, Beraud, Besnard, Blanche, Claus, Dagnan-Bouveret, Dauchez, Denis, Harrison, La Touche, Lavery, Le Sidaner, Raffaëlli, Roll, Simon. Oct.-Nov. Salon d'Automne, inc.: Bakst, Bonnard, Braque, Camoin, Cezanne, Delaunay, Derain, Dufy, Fergusson, Friesz, Guillaumin, Kandinsky, Kupka, Lavery, Leger, Marquet, Matisse, Moret, Redon, Rouault, Rousseau, Sickert, Vallotton, Valtat, Vlaminck; plus belgian exh. inc.: Claus, ensor, Evenelopoel, Finch, Khnopff, Mellery, Rops, Rysselberghe. 1908 March-April, Idependants, inc.: Amiet, Angrand, Braque, Camoin, Cross, Derain, Finch, Gilman, Gore, Kandinsky, Luce, Munch, O'Conor, Rousseau, Roussel, Schuffenecker, Serusier, Sickert,Signac, Vallotton, Vlaminck. April-June, Societe Nationale, inc.: Aman-Jean, Anquetin, Beraud, Bernard, Blanche, Claus, Cottet, Dauchez, Denis, Fergusson, Harrison, La Touche, Lavery, Le Sidaner, Raffaëlli, Roll, Simon. Oct.-Nov. Salon d'Automne, inc.: Bakst, Bonnard, Camoin, Denis, Derain, Van Dongen, Duchamp, Fergusson, Friesz, El Greco,Kandinsky, Lavery, Leger, Marquet, Matisse, Monticelli, Moret, O'Conor, Ranson, Rouault, Sickert, Vallotton, Valtat, Vuillard, Vlaminck. Later Exhibitions 29 September 2013 - 6 January 2014Peggy Guggenheim Collection,THE AVANT-GARDES OF FIN-DE-SIéCLE PARIS: SIGNAC, BONNARD, REDON, AND THEIR CONTEMPORARIES 16 September 2016 - 8 January 2017Albertina, Vienna,Seurat, Signac, Van Gogh. Ways of Pointilism. 11 August 2017– 11 March 2018Kunstmuseum Bern,VAN GOGH TO C3ò4ZANNE, BONNARD TO MATISSE THE COLLECTION HAHNLOSER





ARTISTS	Cross, Henry Edmond French painter, born at Douai, died at Le Lavandou. Pupil at the École des beaux-arts in Lille. In 1884 he completely abandoned academism, following Seurat’s Divisionist example. He was one of the “Pointillists” and founders of the Salon des Indépendants. He almost certainly influenced Matisse, Marquet, and Derain. His work was exhibited with that of Seurat, Signac, and Dubois-Pillet at the Indépendants in 1886, and in 1891 with that of the Impressionists. Colour was Cross’s lifetime preoccupation. In Du Symbolisme au Classicisme (1912) Maurice Denis wrote: “For twenty years now, and with more passion than any other painter, Cross has tried to create sunlight. He has now achieved his aim after much thought, observation, experimenting, and discarding of theory after theory, and has finally managed to substitute the play of colour for the play of light. With his wide knowledge, Cross obviously has the advantage over younger innovators, for far from seeking to capture blindingly and hazardously on canvas the pitiless sunlight, he has trained himself to imagine equivalent harmonies and to establish, with all the logic of his medium, a style which depends entirely on colour. In so doing, Cross was bound to achieve a freer, more lyrical, and decorative style - one only has to look, for example, at Cypresses at Cagne, in some respects so similar to Derain, which heralded Fauvist painting.” Luce, Maximilien French painter. His connection with Pissarro guided him towards Divisionism; he was a member of the group of artists who surrounded Seurat, the exponents of scientific rationalisation in art. He took part in the first Symbolist exhibition of 1891. A short period spent in the mining district of Belgium encouraged him to specialise in portraying working class scenes (the series Gueules noires, Village de Moulineaux, Les Treuils de Sacré Madame at Charleroi). Paris and London also inspired many paintings. Because tonal division facilitated relief in shadow, Luce achieved great expansiveness in his Nocturnes. After Seurat’s death, Luce, Signac, and Félix Fénéon inventoried the artist’s work. In 1935 he became President of the Société des artistes indépendants. He is represented in the Musée d’art moderne in Paris. Seurat, Georges Seurat came from a wealthy background and was a highly intelligent, methodical man. He started to paint in about 1881 and exhibited at the last Impressionist exhibition in 1886. He took Impressionism a step further when he developed pointillism, or as he called it, divisionism. For the most part, he applied pure colours to the canvas. Due to an optical process perceived by the viewer, these “pixels” melt together into mixed colours, provided he stands far enough away from the canvas. This painstaking technique is recognised when observing shadows; from close up, the viewer can see that an aquamarine tint results not from a mixture of blue and green on the palette, but from blue dots positioned over and next to green points. Whereas the Impressionists tried to capture transitory images of ever-changing interactions between light and atmosphere with ephemeral brushstrokes, Seurat’s pictures represent the logical conclusion of a formal process in which everything that is coincidental is reworked, and all correlations are carefully balanced. Like the Impressionists, he made outdoor studies of scenery, light, and colour, but he finished his larger canvases in the studio. Signac,Paul French painter and lithographer, born and died in Paris. His first quayside studies were exhibited at the Indépendants in 1884. Two years later his work was exhibited at the last Impressionist Exhibition (Degas, Forain, Pissarro, Seurat, Gauguin). Rather than hold aloof from reality and study it with a disillusioned eye, Signac preferred to involve himself wholeheartedly with the present and to lay himself open to the thrill of colour sensations which he first of all tried to translate onto canvas after the manner of his acknowledged models, Monet, Pissarro, Renoir, and Guillaumin. Like Seurat, he attempted to reconcile Impressionism with his concern for stability and plastic autonomy—a hiatus which constituted the fundamental problem of Divisionism. However, Seurat most certainly achieved a partial, if not complete, solution in Les Poseuses by opting for style at the expense of the original motif. Whereas Signac, neither as audacious nor as individualistic as Seurat, and also twice as dependent upon the stimulus of reality, clung to a compromise art. In his book D’Eugène Delacroix au Néo-Impressionnisme, Signac shows the logical development of the practice of breaking down light into its component colours. At the Indépendants of 1891, he exhibited a painting entitled Sur l'émail d’un fond rythmique de mesures et d’angles, de tons et de teintes, portrait de M. Félix Fénéon, en 1890—rather like the statement of one of Charles Henry’s theorems. He slightly relaxed this stringency later and became more attracted to the sensation content of Impressionism, especially in his watercolours. At the same time, he painted a whole series of landscapes, figures, and seascapes (La Rochelle Harbour, Saint-Raphaël, View of Antibes). His desire to travel took him to Constantinople and Venice. The interpretation of light effects always fascinated him: Notre-Dame de Paris, La Salute, Houses beside the River (1886), Château des Papes (1912), Le Pont-Veu, Le Pont des Arts (1914). His many watercolours have great charm and freshness, their lively handling being evidence of his quick eye and liking for rich colours. Signac regarded his watercolours as useful jottings rather than finished paintings, as a method of summarising and condensing rather than recreating the original sensation. Despite a certain prolixity, they therefore approach Fauvism—as do a number of his Indian-ink wash drawings whose diagrammatical animation recalls Othon Friesz (Rotterdam). Signac was more than just the theorist of the Neo-Impressionists; he was also a discerning scholar and published, among other writings, critical notes on Stendhal. Toorop, Jan He was an Indo (Javanese Dutch) painter whose works straddle the space between the Symbolist painters and Art Nouveau. Jean Theodoor Toorop was born on 20 December 1858 in Purworejo, Java, Dutch East Indies. In 1872, he moved with his family to the Netherlands, where he studied in Delft and Amsterdam. In 1880, he became a student at the Rijksakademie in Amsterdam. From 1882 to 1886, he lived in Brussels, where he joined Les XX (Les Vingts), a group of artists centred around James Ensor. Toorop worked in various styles during these years, such as Realism, Impressionism, Neo-Impressionism, and Post-Impressionism. After his marriage to an English woman, Annie Hall, in 1886, Toorop alternated his time between The Hague, England, and Brussels, and after 1890, also the Dutch seaside town of Katwijk aan Zee. During this period, he developed his own unique Symbolist style, with dynamic, unpredictable lines based on Javanese motifs, highly stylised willowy figures, and curvilinear designs. Thereafter, he turned to Art Nouveau styles, in which a similar play of lines is used for decorative purposes without any apparent symbolic meaning. In 1905, he converted to Catholicism and began producing religious works. He also created book illustrations, posters, and stained glass designs. Throughout his life, Toorop also produced portraits, in sketch format and as paintings, which in style ranged from highly realistic to impressionistic. Toorop died on 3 March 1928 in The Hague, Netherlands. His daughter Charley Toorop (1891–1955) was also a painter, as was his grandson Edgar Fernhout.





GALLERY

	Georges Seurat, A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte, 1884–1886, Art Institute of Chicago


	Paul Signac, Breakfast, 1886-1887, Kràller-MZller Museum


	Jan Toorop, Broek in Waterlan, 1889, Indianapolis Museum of Art


	Georges Seurat, Le cirque, 1891, Musée d'Orsay


	Henri-Edmond Cross, Cypresses at Cagnes, c.1900, Musée National d'Art Moderne, Paris


	Maximilien Luce, Montmartre, de la rue Cortot, vue vers saint-denis, c.1900,Private collection





BIBLIOGRAPHY	Art: Architecture, Painting, Sculpture, Graphics, Techniques, Bath, 2011. Essential History of Art, Bath , 2001. Jalard, Michel-Claude: Post-Impressionism, Paris, 1966. Shone, Richard: The Post-Impressionism, London, 1979.





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